![]() Fine motor and visual-spatial skills uniquely contribute to these emerging math abilities, with fine motor skill as measured by a task of fine motor dexterity (placing small grooved pegs into a pegboard) related to counting concepts and visual-spatial skill related to quantity comparison. As early as 36 months of age, preschoolers with SB have less well developed understanding of one to one correspondence, are less skilled at rote counting, and are less able to match on the basis of quantity than their typically developing peers. The mathematical processing difficulties of individuals with SB are evident across the life span. In the next section we present studies on math in children with SB that illustrate the ways in which SB has been used to: investigate the cognitive correlates and consequences of math difficulties from a life span perspective test models of mathematical learning disability (MLD) subtypes and study whether growth in particular cognitive abilities is related to mathematical outcomes in the preschool and early elementary school years. The latter type of processing is consistently deficient as seen in shifting between perceptual representations, performance on larger sum computations whose answers are not reliably retrieved from semantic memory (e.g., 8 + 7), and integrating information within text to specify meaning. The former type of processing is relatively intact in individuals with SBM, who show strengths in activation of stipulated representations including the ability to recognize faces, perceive objects from degraded visual cues, retrieve small math facts (e.g., 2 + 3 = 5) from memory, and read words and access word meanings. make a distinction between stipulated processing, which involves performance that is automatically activated and established through associations and repetition, and constructed processing, which relies on the integration of information from various sources and on-line adjustments of performance. Neurodevelopmental outcomes across a number of domains for individuals with SBM have recently been linked to a small number of core deficits tied to the primary brain dysmorphologies of SBM that are evident from birth, persist throughout the lifespan, and result in a combination of spared and deficient processing within domains as diverse as motor function, perception, language, reading, and mathematics. Higher level lesions are related to poorer outcomes, often resulting in difficulties with self-generated locomotion and bladder control, and also worse outcomes in some, but not all, aspects of cognition. ![]() The severity and nature of ambulatory and urinary complications vary depending on the level of this lesion. ![]() It is characterized by a lesion though which the spinal cord protrudes, which can vary in location along the spine. The most severe form of this disorder is called SB myelomeningocele. Shunting for hydrocephalus is required in many children with SB. Further complications arise from hydrocephalus, a buildup of cerebral spinal fluid in the brain that impedes myelination and damages gray matter, particularly in posterior brain regions. Atypical neuroembryogenesis affects the corpus callosum, midbrain and tectum, and cerebellum. SB occurs in ~0.3–0.5 of every 1,000 live births. It is the most common disabling birth defect in North America, affecting the development of both spine and brain. ![]() SB is a neural tube defect that results from complex gene-environment interactions. Possible implications for intervention and directions for future research are outlined. We then discuss ways in which this disorder has been used to understand mathematical ability and disability by using a life span approach that: (1) considers the natural course of mathematical abilities and their cognitive correlates in preschoolers, school-age children, and adults with SB and (2) investigates potential developmental precursors of later developing mathematical skills using longitudinal methods. This article begins with an overview of SB: its epidemiology, pathophysiology, and a model of neurocognitive functioning that serves to organize findings across diverse cognitive outcomes including math. As such, SB is a useful disorder for investigating how and why children develop problems with math and for studying some of the early developmental precursors of later emerging disabilities in mathematics. Spina bifida (SB) is a congenital neurodevelopmental disorder identified during gestation or at birth that is associated with high rates of math difficulties by school-age often in the context of adequate development of general cognitive abilities and word reading.
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